Summary

Circadian rhythms result from cell-intrinsic timing mechanisms that impact health and disease 1,2 . To date, however, neural circadian research has largely focused on the hypothalamic circuitry of nocturnal rodents 3 . Whether circadian rhythms exist in human brain cells is unknown. Here we show bona fide circadian rhythms in human neurons, glia, cerebral organoids, and cerebral organoid slices (ALI-COs) 4–8 . Human neural circadian rhythms are synchronised by physiological timing cues such as glucocorticoids and daily temperature cycles, and these rhythms are temperature-compensated across the range of normal human brain temperatures 9 . Astrocyte rhythms are phase-advanced relative to other cultures and they modulate neuronal clock responses to temperature shift. Cerebral organoid rhythms are more robust at physiological brain temperatures; the relative amplitude of these rhythms increases over time in culture and their resetting capacity recapitulates key neurodevelopmental transitions in glucocorticoid signalling 10–14 . Remarkably, organoid post-transcriptional bioluminescent clock reporter rhythms are retained even when those of their putative transcriptional drivers are indiscernible 15 , and electrophysiology recordings confirm circadian rhythms in functional activity of monocultures, organoids, and ALI-COs. Around one third of the cerebral organoid proteome and phosphoproteome are circadian-rhythmic, with temporal consolidation of disease-relevant neural processes. Finally, we show that human brain organoid rhythms can be modulated and disrupted by commonly used brain-permeant drugs and mistimed cortisol exposure, respectively. Our results demonstrate that human brain cells and tissues develop their own circadian oscillations and that canonical mechanisms of the circadian clockwork may be inadequate to explain these rhythmic phenomena. 2D and 3D human neural cultures represent complementary and tractable models for exploring the emergence, disruption, and mechanics of the circadian neural clockwork, with important implications for chronobiology, brain function, and brain health.